Terms & concepts: The Iliad & The Odyssey/Oresteia; Beowulf

The Greek literary works, the Iliad and the Odyssey, spoken of as written by Homer (though no one knows if he actually existed), are classified by literary scholars as classical epics. Beowulf is usually classified as a Norse saga, a similar heroic genre that existed in Scandinavia. Like Greek epic, Norse saga existed in oral tradition, before it was written down sometime around 900 C.E. (CE is the abbreviation historians use for the common era, or years since the birth of Christ) by a monk in Mercia, an inland region in central England.

Definition of Epic

An epic is a long narrative poem about an noble hero, often with superhuman qualities, upon whose fate depends the fate of a nation or a people. It is expansive, involves long journeys, takes place over a long period of time. The gods are interested and actively involved in the activities of people. The language is elevated and formal.

Epic conventions include the following:

The story begins in medias res (Latin for "in the middle of things")
The poet usually invokes the muse (i.e., asks the muse for inspiration) (Not in Norse Saga)
Important characters give "set speeches" (formal speeches)
Important elements are presented in catalogues; esp. weapons, horses, ships, warriors, etc.
Rituals are important (e.g., sacrifices)
The characters engage in epic battles and/or games.
At some point, we witness the arming of the warrior
The gods are interested (and interfere) in the activities of people.
The hero, if killed, may be translated to the celestial sphere.

Other concepts:

Metaphor—a comparison between two things that are otherwise not alike. For instance, "My love is a rose." Love is not really a rose, but it has certain roselike qualities that make this comparison work.

Simile—a kind of metaphor, but the two elements are not equated to one another; instead, they are compared using "like" or "as". For instance, "My love is like a rose."

Epic simile—a type of simile used in epics that – like everything else about epics – is bigger than other similes. For instance, here is a description of the Greek army:

"The troops themselves had no fear,
no dread of the Trojans' power and breakneck charges,
no, they stood their ground like heavy thunderheads
stacked up on the towering mountaintops by Cronus' son,
stock-still in a windless calm when the raging North Wind
and his gusty ripping friends that had screamed down
to rout dark clouds have fallen dead asleep."

Oral-formulaic poetry—poetry that was composed & recited orally, in which the poet used certain formulaic variations (or "ornamental epithets"), each with a particular metric structure, that helped the poet improvise and compose poetry in the appropriate meter. Consequently, the "text" of the poem varies every time it is delivered.

For example, the following formulas from the Iliad:

white-armed Hera
grey eyed Athena, or the bright-eyed goddess Pallas
rosy-fingered dawn
fleet footed Achilles, or Achilles, swift of foot, or swift-footed Achilles, or strong Achilles,
wily Odysseus, or Odysseus of many devices, or Odysseus of much suffering

In epic and Norse saga, variations often appear in the naming conventions applied to characters. Beowulf, for instance, is Beowulf, but he is also the son of Ecgtheow, and he is the kinsman of Hygelac. You may find him referred to by these and other names. Such variation was considered ornamental and the sign of a good poet.